(Solved by Humans)-(1) What factors influence cognitive (intellectual) development?

Question

(1) What factors influence cognitive (intellectual) development?

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(2) What are the four stages of cognitive development, according to Piaget?

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(3) Write down two implications of Piaget's theory for people teaching teenagers at the formal stage.

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(4) How do you plan to facilitate the development of your students' metacognitive skills?

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(5) Write down three implications of Vygotsky's teaching theory.

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(6) Suggest three ways to help children expand their language skills and comprehension.

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(7) Explain the relationship between language acquisition and cognitive development.

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(8) Can you give two examples of developmentally appropriate practices for adolescents at the formal operation stage?

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EDT1602/102

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State whether the following statements are true or false.

(1) Cognitive development theory studies the acquisition and development of intelligence. ???.

(2) According to Piaget, the ability to mentally reverse events can be seen as the beginning of logical reasoning. ???.

(3) According to Piaget, the ability to reason on a problem in an abstract manner is a characteristic of formal operational thought in the adolescent stage. ???.

(4) For Vygotsky, learning occurs in the zone of proximal development and actually pulls development along. ???.

(5) Piaget and Vygotsky would agree that asking questions to throw students out of equilibrium within their respective zones of proximal development can cause them to equilibrate. ???.

Try to explain the meaning of the following terms in your own words and then check to see if you are correct.

Cognitive development?????..................................................................................................

Schemas?????..................................................................................................

Assimilation?????..................................................................................................................

Accommodation??????.........................................................................................................

Equilibration?????..................................................................................................................

Zone of proximal development???????...............................................................................

Scaffolding?????....................................................................................................................

Intersubjectivity??????.........................................................................................................

Metacognition??????............................................................................................................

EDT1602/102/3/2016

Tutorial Letter 102/3/2016

Learning and Teaching Strategies in the
Adolescent Years

EDT1602
Semesters 1 & 2
Department of Psychology of Education

IMPORTANT INFORMATION:
This tutorial letter contains important information
about your module.

CONTENTS

Page
1

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 3

2

STUDY MATERIAL ...................................................................................................................... 4

3

ORIENTATION AND STUDY GUIDELINES ................................................................................. 4

4

THE PURPOSE OF THIS TUTORIAL LETTER ............................................................................ 5

PART I ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
UNDERSTANDING THE ADOLESCENT: DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES ............................................ 7
STUDY UNIT 1: COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY ................................................................................ 7
STUDY UNIT 2: PERSONAL, PSYCHOSOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY ................. 21
STUDY UNIT 3: BEHAVIOURAL THEORY ........................................................................................... 34
PART II .................................................................................................................................................. 39
ASPECTS OF QUALITY TEACHING AND LEARNING ........................................................................ 39
PART III ................................................................................................................................................. 42
TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES ......................................................................................... 42

2

EDT1602/102
1

INTRODUCTION

Dear Student

Welcome to the module in Learning and teaching strategies in the adolescent years. This course has
been updated to reflect current practices. The study guide that has been issued to you is for reading
purposes and interest only. It is NOT the principal guide for this course, since the prescribed reader
referred to in the study guide is no longer in print. Nevertheless, some relevant sections from the study
guide have been included in this tutorial letter.

According to Killen (2015:31), teachers need the following forms of knowledge to enable them to teach
effectively:




Knowledge about learning
Knowledge about teaching
Knowledge about content

These three forms of knowledge
overlap to create pedagogical
content
knowledge
(Shulman
1987).

With this in mind, this course focuses on two essential components of the teaching-learning situation:



getting to know the adolescent developmentally (knowledge about learning)
learning and teaching strategies in the adolescent years (knowledge about teaching)

These components form a unit and should always be viewed in relation to each other.

Teaching and learning in the 21st century requires a set of skills, tools and thinking that is suited to
educating learners in the information era. Similarly, learners need to be equipped with the necessary
knowledge and competencies to participate and contribute confidently in the 21st century.

Education in the 21st century should foster learning that encompasses a culture of human rights for all
and promotes lifelong learning and values based on tolerance, respect and responsibility, among others.

Teachers should aim to equip all learners with the knowledge, competencies and orientation they need
for success in both their personal lives and careers. This should help learners to become competent,
contributing citizens who are critical and creative in their thinking.
We hope that this course will help you to achieve these aims.

We trust that you will enjoy this module and we wish you all the best!

Your lecturers

3

PS: In keeping with the increasing sets of information emerging in the information era, the prescribed
book contains references to different theories, viewpoints and propositions made by scientists and
academics alike. You will notice that these authors always reference and acknowledge the source of
their contributions. Please do the same whenever you refer to their ideas in your assignments.

2

STUDY MATERIAL

The study material for this module comprises the following:
1.
2.
3.

3

Tutorial Letter 101 ? This contains an introduction to the module, administrative matters and the
assignments.
Tutorial Letter 102 ? This contains the course outline and additional study material.
Prescribed book: Killen, R. 2015. Teaching strategies for quality teaching and learning.
2nd edition. Juta. Cape Town

ORIENTATION AND STUDY GUIDELINES

Teaching and learning form a single integrated concept and the value of teaching can, therefore, be
found in the type of learning it encourages. As mentioned previously, teachers need to have knowledge
of three essential components. These components overlap to create knowledge that is necessary for
effective teaching and learning to occur across and within particular disciplines. The objective of this
module is to provide two of these components (i.e some knowledge about learning and some knowledge
about teaching) in the context of teaching adolescents, as indicated below:

Components of teaching

This module presents the following:

Knowledge about learning

an understanding of adolescents in the context of their
development and learning

Knowledge about teaching

learning and teaching strategies in the adolescent years

Knowledge about content

Note: This knowledge relates to your own subject and is
NOT presented in this course.

This module reflects a learning-centred and student-centred approach to encourage learners to think for
themselves. It is based on the belief that all individuals can and want to learn, and that the role of the
teacher is critical in the creation of an optimal learning environment.

4

EDT1602/102

This tutorial letter (including module content) is structured as follows:

Section

Topic
Understanding the adolescent: developmental
theories

PART I

Source
Tutorial Letter 102 (this one)
Study units 1, 2 and 3
Prescribed book

PART II

Aspects of quality learning and teaching

Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 15;
appendix and
myUnisa (uploaded notes)

PART III

4

Teaching and learning strategies

Prescribed book
Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10

THE PURPOSE OF THIS TUTORIAL LETTER

The purpose of this tutorial letter is as follows:

To provide essential information (particularly part I as a whole) not contained in the prescribed
book. This information should be studied from this tutorial letter and additional resources
uploaded on myUnisa during the semester, since assignments and examination questions will be
based on these sets of information. If necessary, you may read more in other sources to
supplement your understanding. (NB: Additional resources will be uploaded on myUnisa
when necessary.)


To demarcate the content of the module and highlight examinable content. The whole of part I
should be studied. Topics for additional reading and your own further research will be indicated
under the subheading: Additional reading.



To indicate learning outcomes for the different study units in part I, as well as the generic
learning outcomes for part III. The learning outcomes for the different chapters in part II are
indicated in the prescribed book under the paragraph that starts, ?When you have mastered the
ideas in this chapter, you will be able to:...?



To enrich your understanding of certain concepts by sometimes indicating cross references to
other sources so that you can supplement your reading and integrate different ideas. At the end
of each chapter in the prescribed book, a list of websites is given that you may consult to
expand your knowledge base and explore a range of sources.

It is best to work through this tutorial letter systematically, from beginning to end, so that you get an
overview of the module.
5

At the end of each study unit (in part I) and chapter in the prescribed book (parts II and III), there are
questions and tasks to:




6

consolidate your knowledge
direct you to important aspects in the study unit or chapter
give you an idea of the kinds of questions you can expect in assignments and the examination
(Please do not submit the answers to these questions for assessment; they are
self-assessment questions. Only the assignments in Tutorial Letter 101 should be
submitted.)

EDT1602/102

PART I
UNDERSTANDING THE ADOLESCENT: DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
The aim of part I of this tutorial letter is to give an overview of human development, with particular
emphasis on the adolescent years. The adolescent should be viewed as a total person in the context of
physical, emotional, cognitive and social development. This information is referred to, but not discussed,
in your prescribed book; that is why it has been included in this tutorial letter.

Part I comprises three study units that cover some developmental and learning theories. In this part, the
basic ideas of landmark scientific developmental theories are introduced. These landmark theories have
given rise to other learning and teaching theories and strategies. However, it is equally important to be
aware of the criticism levelled against these landmark scientific studies and theories. A good scientific
theory is one that generates new research, as these theories have done. Over the last 50 years, some of
these theories have been either challenged or expanded, as further research has led to the emergence
of new findings. Learning and teaching strategies have consequently changed and developed to meet
the continually evolving needs of people and environments throughout the ages.

Please note that even though you are expected to study all the stages of the developmental theories
covered in the study units, you should always consider the implications these may have for teaching or
working with adolescents, in particular. Your assignment and examination questions will focus mainly on
the basic tenets of these theories, as well as the features of development that take place during the
adolescent years. It is, however, necessary to be familiar with the background to all the other
developmental stages covered by each developmental theory.

STUDY UNIT 1: COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
Introduction
Most developmental theories have in common the idea that children are in the process of developing
towards a situation or level that is termed "adulthood". This applies to their intellectual, emotional and
social development. Thus it would seem as if, during childhood, individuals are in a process of education
directed at reaching adulthood. Using Piaget?s theory as an example, if we consider the level of
intellectual development of a five-year-old, who is capable of pre-operational thought, this preoperational thought would be considered incomplete if we regarded formal operational thought as the
goal of intellectual development. According to this view, pre-operational thought is just a means to an
end, namely formal operational thought.

The educational implication of this view is that we ought to provide children with learning activities that fit
their level of development. For instance, we cannot teach concepts such as poverty, love and respect to
a child who has not yet reached the level of abstract thought.

Nevertheless, it is well-known that babies and young children possess an exceptional ability to learn
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languages. We know how difficult it is for adults (who have supposedly completed their intellectual
development) to begin learning a new language. This observation appears to overturn the whole
argument and forces us to concede that, although the intellectual capabilities of a baby or young child
are very limited compared with those of an adult; there may be complex tasks that the young child can
master more easily than an adult. This interesting ability is known as the critical development period,
which we will discuss later on.

So while some developmental theories regard children's physical, emotional, social and spiritual
development as incomplete because they are in the process of developing towards adulthood, an
alternative view is that, as children develop, developmental tasks are adjusted to whatever the child
needs at that specific time to function optimally. The new-born baby's sense of smell and sucking ability
help her to recognise her mother and to obtain nourishment. The baby is thus able to function optimally
without using language. Her emotional need at this stage is to be as near to her caregiver as possible.
Owing to her inability to move around, it is therefore necessary for her to keep the caregiver as close to
her as possible.

This viewpoint also implies that children do not necessarily have to follow one route of development as
regards language, socioeconomic situation, culture, and so on, but that various routes are possible. Thus
individual children may take various routes to achieve developmental competence at different periods of
their lives; furthermore, the route they choose may be influenced by their different abilities and
personalities and by niches or periods in their development.

Learning outcomes
After you have worked through study unit 1, you should be able to explain





the complex and multifaceted dimensions of human development
the ways in which development affects learning, focusing on adolescents, in particular
the effect of life conditions on development
why the learning process requires different teaching strategies at different levels
of development

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
How do individuals' cognitive abilities develop?
What is the social basis for cognitive development?

1.1

PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Piaget believed that children pass through different phases of intellectual development. Their progress
through these phases is influenced by those people who are on hand to teach them, as well as by the
child's inherent potential for learning. What Piaget meant by development in phases was not that all
children reach a certain phase at a specific age, but that certain intellectual levels can be clearly
distinguished. All children progress through all four stages of development, but the pace at which they
progress may vary.
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EDT1602/102
According to this theory, one phase must be completed before it is possible to pass on to the next.

Before we discuss the phases, we need to explain some concepts relating to this theory.

1.1.1 Concepts related to this theory

1.1.1.1

Schemas

We start learning from an early age. We remember what we have learnt by storing it in our brain so that
we can use it again later. Everyone thus has a certain amount of organised information, or a schema of
information, which is kept in readiness for later use. Because the human brain is so complex and there is
so much to learn, everyone has a number, or even a network, of schemas. We could call this the
intellectual or cognitive structure. Because we are continually learning new things, we always try to fit the
new information into the relevant schema. It would not make sense to store all the new information that
we learn in a haphazard way; such a "filing system" would lead to a chaotic intellectual structure. When
children come across a new object or idea, they try to understand it and fit it in somewhere among their
existing information.

For example, Aziza invited Patricia, a friend from Gauteng, to visit her in the Cape. When Patricia
arrived, the sun was shining brightly and there were no clouds covering Table Mountain. The next day,
Aziza showed her friend a few places in the city. They walked about on the Grand Parade, visited the
National Cultural History Museum and, naturally, went up Table Mountain. Back home, Patricia told her
family about the Cape: "The weather is perfect, the sky bluer than here and there is not the slightest
wind. The mountain is in the middle of the city and from it you can see the sea. The city is old and all the
streets run downwards. The high mountains made me feel anxious because you can't see past them.
There is a garden and a museum and people sell things at a market."

Patricia, who had never been to the Cape before, has stored everything she saw in the Cape under a
new schema entitled "Cape". The information she gives is correct, but Capetonians will smile at her
innocence. Patricia does have a schema of the Cape, but it contains very little information. She has no
idea how fickle the weather in the Cape can be, and she was there for too short a time to get to know the
people or to get to know the Cape as its inhabitants know it.

When we consider the issue of ethnocentrism, we have to wonder if our critical judgement of others who
differ from us could be based on such incomplete schemas. We use only the information at our disposal
when we reason, but often think that we have the whole truth.

The schemas of young children are often incomplete. It is the task of educators to talk to children, show
them things and give them names so that the children have a word to which they can attach a meaning
and then store that meaning. Not only do they need to see things, but also to touch, smell and listen so
that their whole perceptual field (all their senses) is involved in the learning process. If a three-year-old
boy has a schema for "motor cars" and he sees a train for the first time, he needs to have it explained to
him that trains run on rails; he needs to hear the train whistle, see how the train pulls several coaches,
and so on, so that he can understand that the train is not a motor car and can establish a new schema
9

for "trains" in his intellectual structure. This brings us to the way in which the establishment of new
schemas takes place.

1.1.1.2

Assimilation and accommodation

Two intellectual tasks are involved here. New information can be fitted into an existing schema, or it may
be necessary to adjust the existing schema or form a brand-new schema.

When a little girl, for example, already has a schema for "birds" and sees a new kind of bird, the
information on the new bird can still be fitted into the existing schema. This is called assimilation.

Every schema works like a theory. The person has certain information and harbours certain expectations
of the object to which the schema relates. The little girl in our example harbours the expectation that all
birds can fly. So when she encounters a fowl and an ostrich, she is forced to adjust her theory about
birds, because fowls and ostriches cannot fly, although they have all the other characteristics of birds.
When the schema has to be adjusted, such as to make allowance for fowls and ostriches, which are
birds, but cannot fly, accommodation takes place.

1.1.1.3

Equilibrium

Equilibrium means balance. When children are busy learning new things and come to the realisation that
existing schemas will have to change, they exist for a time in a situation of disequilibrium or imbalance.
Because people are motivated from birth to learn and to get to know more, they want to eliminate this
imbalance or disharmony. Therefore, when a person encounters a problem, they will continue to think
about it until they have understood and solved it. In the process of learning, a person thus moves
continually from a situation of disequilibrium to one of equilibrium.

1.1.2 The four stages of intellectual development according to Piaget

Sensorimotor stage

0?2 years

Pre-operational stage

2?6 years

Concrete operational stage

7?11 years

Formal operational stage

12 years and older

1.1.2.1

The sensorimotor stage (from birth to about 2 years)

The physical development of the child is not covered in this module, but you could do supplementary
reading on this topic in conjunction with this section for a deeper understanding of the child?s global
development. You should particularly keep the following points in mind during the discussion of the
infant's intellectual development:

?

10

Infants' gross motor skills develop quickly during the first year, culminating in the ability to start
walking at the age of 14 or 15 months.

EDT1602/102
?

Fine motor skills also develop quickly during this period, so that by the middle of their first year,
babies can already coordinate both hands to pick up and manipulate objects.

?
Perceptual skills are already functioning shortly after birth and improve quickly during the first
year (Kail 1998:144).

Because babies develop so quickly, both physically and intellectually, Piaget distinguishes six substages
in this developmental phase. The various ages that are indicated may vary from baby to baby.

Sub stage 1: The practising of reflexes (from birth to approximately 1 month)
We know that new-born babies already possess certain reflexes, such as the sucking reflex. As with any
motor skill, this reflex improves, over time, so that the older baby can suck more strongly than the newborn baby.

Sub stage 2: Adaptation of reflexes (from approximately 1 to 4 months)
During this period, reflexes become used as a means to achieve a goal. Whereas the baby first sucked
its thumb purely as a reflex action, now it learns to bring the thumb to its mouth in order to repeat the
satisfying sucking sensation. Kail (1998:146) terms such an action a "primary circular reaction".

Sub stage 3: Taking notice of objects separate from the body (from approximately 4 to 8 months)
The primary circular reaction, which was primarily focused on the baby's body, such as sucking its thumb
and grasping its own limbs, is now followed by an interest in objects. Objects are grasped and first of all
brought to the mouth, where the primary need for sucking is still centred. Whereas the baby performed
the primary circular reactions with its own body, now it begins to do this with objects. This is called the
secondary circular reaction and is characterised by more purposeful actions than in sub stage 2. These
actions are aimed at exploring the world around the baby, beginning with an examination of objects.

Sub stage 4: Carrying out one task in order to carry out a subsequent task (approximately 8 to 12
months)
For the first time, the motor activity reveals a purposeful movement directed at reaching a goal. If, for
instance, a baby reaches for a toy and a cloth is placed over the toy, the baby will lift up the cloth to
reach the toy. This movement is called the tertiary circular reaction.

Sub stage 5: Experimentation (from about 12 to 18 months)
In this stage, babies are able to begin experimenting with the tertiary circular reactions already
established. They can already make the movements, but now they use them simply to see what will
happen. If a baby boy has learnt that some toys rattle, he will also pick up a teddy bear and shake it to
see if it rattles. If he puts a soft rubber toy in his mouth and is able to chew on it, he will try it with a
woolly toy to see what happens. So this stage consists of the repetition of certain movements to see
what the result will be. There is thus an element of estimation and expectation involved.

11

Sub stage 6: The use of symbols (approximately 18 to 24 months)
During this stage, children can already say words and make gestures to show what they want. They
have already learnt that the word or the gesture stands for something else. Naming is an important
intellectual activity and will be discussed in more detail under the development of language. The use of
symbolism can now be observed in the baby's play as well. For example, a baby will hold a toy that looks
like a telephone to his ear or use an object that looks like a pencil to scribble on a surface in front of him.

By the time babies can use symbols, they can begin to foresee the consequences of their actions. For
example, a baby will see that putting yet another block on her already toppling tower of blocks will mean
that the tower will tumble down. So she puts down the block and pushes over the whole tower herself to
get more fun out of it.

The ability to use symbols marks the end of the sensorimotor stage and the beginning of pre-operational
thought.

1.1.2.2

The stage of pre-operational thought (from about 2 to 6 years)

We have seen that even in the sensorimotor stage, the baby began to make use of symbols. Because
the use of symbolism is such an important part of this stage, we will first look at the characteristics of the
preschool child's use of symbolism. Because pre-schoolers have only just learnt to use symbolism, we
can presume that their use of symbolism is at a beginner's level, rather than advanced.

The following are characteristic...